肝硬化并发门静脉血栓的危险因素与防护策略
DOI: 10.12449/JCH240128
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摘要: 门静脉血栓(PVT)形成是肝硬化自然病程中的常见并发症之一,对肝硬化进展有重要影响。本文着重总结了PVT发生的危险因素、预后等方面的研究进展。PVT形成的危险因素较多,Virchow三要素即门静脉血流阻滞、血液高凝状态、手术或创伤引起的血管内皮损伤以及全身炎症等被认为是PVT发生发展的主要原因。目前具有临床应用前景的PVT发生风险预测模型尚需更多前瞻性研究验证。肝硬化PVT患者的预后较差,完全闭塞性PVT与肝移植术后病死率升高相关。肝硬化患者预防性抗凝治疗已被证实安全有效,将有助于PVT的防治管理。Abstract: Portal vein thrombosis (PVT) is one of the common complications during the natural course of liver cirrhosis and has an important influence on the progression of liver cirrhosis. This article mainly summarizes the research advances in the risk factors for PVT. There are many risk factors for PVT, and Virchow’s triad, namely venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and vascular endothelial injury and systemic inflammation caused by surgery or trauma, are considered the main reasons for the development and progression of PVT. At present, more prospective studies are still needed to validate the predictive models for the risk of PVT that have certain application prospects in clinical practice. Cirrhotic patients with PVT tend to have a poor prognosis, and complete obstructive PVT is associated with increased mortality after liver transplantation. Recent studies have shown that prophylactic anticoagulant therapy is safe and effective in patients with liver cirrhosis and can thus help with the prevention and treatment of PVT.
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Key words:
- Liver Cirrhosis /
- Portal Vein /
- Venous Thrombosis
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门静脉血栓(portal vein thrombosis,PVT)以门静脉或门静脉分支的血块阻塞血流为特征,包括有无血栓延伸至脾静脉或肠系膜静脉[1],是肝硬化患者最常见的静脉血栓栓塞类型。近年来有关PVT的研究逐渐增多,但目前临床上尚无法准确预测PVT的发生,其发病机制、自然史、预后和治疗等问题仍存在争议。
1. PVT的流行病学
PVT最早见于1868年1例20岁男性患者,主要表现为腹水、脾肿大和食管静脉曲张[2]。随后越来越多的相关研究开展,PVT的发生被认为与肝硬化严重程度和不同的基础疾病有关。既往研究中,肝硬化患者发生PVT的相对风险是普通人群的7倍[3],普通人群中PVT发生率不足1%[4];无肝细胞癌(HCC)和腹部手术史的肝硬化患者的PVT发生率为6.4%。HCC患者的PVT发生率为22.7%~24.4%,脾切除术后PVT发生率为24.6%[5]。一项大型前瞻性队列研究[6]随访结果显示,1 243例Child A/B级肝硬化患者1、3和5年PVT累积发病率分别为4.6%、8.2%和10.7%。
2. PVT的分类
根据血栓形成的时间划分,如果推测PVT存在时间少于6个月,则将其归为近期血栓,超过6个月,则归为慢性血栓[7]。近期PVT患者可表现为腹痛、发热或腹水,而43%的慢性PVT患者可能无症状。但由于肝硬化PVT发病隐匿,被发现时往往难以界定血栓形成时间。2020年,我国肝硬化PVT管理专家共识[8]推荐根据是否存在PVT相关的临床症状进行分期:肝硬化患者若存在急性腹痛、恶心、呕吐等症状,则定义为急性症状性PVT;若无相关症状,则定义为非急性症状性PVT。急性症状性PVT最常见的演变为自发消退或疾病稳定,发生率为45%~70%[3]。非急性症状性PVT患者常出现侧支循环,即海绵样变,且易发生门静脉高压相关并发症,如腹水和静脉曲张出血。根据门静脉系统管腔闭塞程度,可将PVT分为完全阻塞(无连续性管腔)、部分阻塞(血栓阻塞>原始血管腔的50%)或最低阻塞(血栓阻塞<原始血管腔的50%)[9]。目前最常用的PVT分级系统是2000年Yerdel等[10]提出的分级方法,该分级主要用于肝移植术前手术的评估。
3. 肝硬化并发PVT的危险因素
血栓的发病机制一般是多因素的,PVT与其他静脉血栓的形成有相同之处,其病理生理机制被认为主要为Virchow三联征的3个生理因素的相互作用,即血流缓慢、局部血管损伤和血液高凝状态[11]。
3.1 血流缓慢
血流动力学因素在PVT的发生中发挥重要作用[12]。肝硬化时肝内血管阻力增加,引起门静脉高压导致血流动力学改变,最终促进PVT形成。多普勒超声检查门静脉流速<15 cm/s是肝硬化患者发生PVT最重要的危险因素[3]。因此,可认为所有降低门静脉流速的条件均可促进PVT的发展,如使用非选择性β-受体阻滞剂(non-selective beta-blocker,NSBB)或存在门静脉系统分流。其中,NSBB是治疗门静脉高压症的主要药物,被广泛用于肝硬化食管静脉曲张出血的一级和二级预防,但NSBB也因能显著降低门静脉血流速度,故有增加PVT发生的风险。有前瞻性研究[13]指出,NSBB是肝硬化患者发生PVT的危险因素,独立于基线静息心率和门静脉流速。Meta分析[14]证实,肝硬化患者使用NSBB将导致PVT的发生风险增加4.62倍。但另有一项前瞻性研究[15]在调整了与门静脉高压严重程度相关的变量后,认为NSBB与PVT风险增加无关。考虑到NSBB在需要预防静脉曲张出血一级和二级的人群中有明显的生存获益,因此不建议轻易限制使用NSBB。此外,在持续门静脉高压情况下可出现门静脉内径增宽,甚至形成门静脉侧支血管,将大量的血液绕过肝脏从门静脉分流到体循环,最终导致门静脉血流量减少和流速降低,促进PVT形成。
3.2 血液高凝状态
肝硬化患者一般伴有肝功能不全,导致部分止血蛋白、促凝剂(凝血酶原、凝血因子Ⅴ和Ⅹ)和抗凝血因子(蛋白C、蛋白S和抗凝血酶)的合成减少,但促凝因子Ⅷ和血管性血友病因子(von Willebrand factor,vWF)的水平上升,凝血系统处于脆弱的再平衡状态,甚至倾向于高凝状态[16]。研究[17]表明,蛋白S是失代偿期肝硬化患者PVT发生的独立危险因素,蛋白S的缺乏可能破坏促凝和抗凝过程的平衡。凝血因子Ⅷ和蛋白C比值既往被认为可作为PVT形成的独立预测因素,反映随疾病进展而增加的凝血状态。然而最近研究[18]表明,该比值随肝功能障碍严重程度的增加而增加,与血栓形成无关,并不能反映凝血情况。
有研究[19]发现,外周血血栓调节素抵抗与PVT的发展存在显著相关性,但有待在独立队列中得到验证。肝硬化晚期,细菌易位增加了肠道细菌感染的可能性。细菌脂多糖已被证实能够增加血小板活性和促进内皮细胞分泌凝血因子Ⅷ,同时降低血栓调节素活性,导致高凝状态[20-21]。
在各种亲血栓性遗传缺陷中,凝血因子Ⅴ Leiden和凝血酶原G20210A突变是当前研究热点。Meta分析[22]显示,存在凝血因子Ⅴ Leiden或凝血酶原G20210A突变的肝硬化患者,其发生PVT的风险升高2倍以上。D-二聚体作为血栓形成的分子标志物,可通过观察血清D-二聚体水平变化,判断机体的凝血和纤维溶解过程。有研究[23]证实,D-二聚体含量升高是PVT发生的独立风险因素。
3.3 血管内皮损伤
内皮功能障碍形成PVT的研究较少,部分原因在于内脏区域不可接近[11]。当前证据[24]表明,内皮功能障碍相关标志物(如vWF、p-选择素和异前列腺素等)在肝硬化患者中水平上调。门静脉高压和细菌易位均被认为有助于内皮细胞的活化。一方面,肝硬化门静脉高压持续损害血管内皮,使部分内皮细胞脱落或胶原暴露,导致血小板黏附,促进血栓形成[25];另一方面,细菌易位引起的菌血症在门静脉区水平较高,致使内皮细胞活化并释放vWF[11]。
内镜治疗食管静脉曲张、腹部手术、炎症或创伤、门静脉系统分流术等可直接造成血管损伤或干扰血流而促进血栓的形成,均是PVT的潜在因素[3]。
3.4 外科手术
脾切除术、门静脉高压断流术和肝移植等也被报道为损伤静脉或改变门静脉流量导致PVT的重要独立危险因素。其中,脾切除术后PVT发生率为0.8%~53%[26]。国内报道即使不考虑肝功能障碍的严重程度,脾切除术也可增加10倍的PVT发生风险[27]。肝硬化患者大多存在不同程度的脾功能亢进,造成PLT破坏增加,而脾切除术后其破坏减少,PLT反跳性增高,使门静脉系统倾向高凝状态,促进血栓形成[27]。因此,术前PLT减少与术后PLT升高被认为是脾切除术后出现PVT的独立危险因素[28]。此外,脾切除后不但门静脉血流量锐减20%~40%[29],机体还可能出现明显的炎症反应,从而使纤维蛋白原增多、血液黏度增加,易导致凝血功能障碍和PVT[30]。也有报道[31]称,脾静脉直径是脾切除术后PVT的危险因素。
3.5 炎症因素
越来越多的研究表明,炎症在静脉血栓栓塞的发病机制中发挥重要作用,炎症过程可以从3个方面影响凝血:抗凝物质下调、抑制纤维蛋白溶解和激活凝血系统[32],且炎症可增加内皮细胞的损伤。
部分炎症标志物如血小板/淋巴细胞比值(platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio,PLR)、中性粒细胞/淋巴细胞比值(neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio,NLR)被认为是深静脉血栓形成的有效预测指标[32-33]。研究[34]发现,NLR和PLR与肝硬化PVT独立相关,当NLR为3.14或PLR为103.35时,无PVT患者发生PVT的风险分别为2.89倍和2.23倍。
全身性炎症标志物IL-6可能通过直接作用于内皮细胞而促进PVT的发生。IL-6不仅能够诱导内皮细胞释放超大体积的vWF多聚体,还能够抑制vWF的分裂,从而促进血栓形成。体外实验[35]表明,IL-6可引起高凝,导致散乱的纤维蛋白凝块。在肝硬化患者中,IL-6升高和淋巴细胞减少是PVT独立于门静脉高压症标志物的预测指标[36]。一项分析肝硬化PVT患者炎症标志物的研究[35]发现,IL-6与PVT的相关性以IL-6升高>5.5 pg/mL时最为显著。最近一项研究[33]显示,PVT患者血浆中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网标志物水平显著升高,其形成可促进PVT患者的高凝状态。
3.6 其他因素
肥胖、代谢综合征、非酒精性脂肪性肝炎肝硬化以及静脉曲张出血史也被认为是PVT的独立危险因素[15,37]。有研究[38]证实,糖尿病患者高血糖和胰岛素抵抗可导致血小板活性、计数的改变以及凝血、纤溶因子的定性或定量改变,从而使糖尿病患者更容易形成血栓。
4. 肝硬化并发PVT的预测模型
2015年,Sarin等[39]提出了一种关于肝硬化PVT的测试前概率评估模型,该模型基于3个主要标准和7个次要标准,前者包括:Child B/C级肝硬化、PVT既往史和存在血栓前危险因素(凝血因子V Leiden突变,凝血酶原基因突变,MTHFR突变);后者包括:门静脉系统分流、门静脉高压症、门静脉流速<15 cm/s、活动性HCC、静脉血栓栓塞史、近期腹部介入治疗史和急腹症临床表现。患者若存在:(1)任意2个主要标准;(2)1个主要标准、2个次要标准;(3)4个次要标准,上述3种情况均提示发展为PVT风险较高。该评分可以指导临床确定抗凝预防获益人群,但其预测作用尚需进一步开展前瞻性研究明确。
2019年,Gaballa等[40]提出一种用于预测肝硬化PVT风险及分级的评分系统,被称为PVT风险指数(PVT risk index,PVT-RI),主要适用于预测肝移植候选者PVT的发生率,其中考虑了与PVT风险较高相关的5个变量:年龄、非裔美国人血统、终末期肝病模型评分、中度/重度腹水和非酒精性脂肪性肝炎。PVT-RI<2.6的阴性预测值为94%,可用于建立超声监测时间。PVT-RI>4.6,阳性预测值为85%,可识别出高危人群,从抗凝预防中获益。但其预测作用也需要更多前瞻性研究证实。
基于脾切除术后血小板反弹性升高,最近我国学者[41]提出术后血小板升高率可能是PVT的重要预测因子,研究团队通过机器学习算法成功开发基于PPER的PVT预测实用模型,准确率高达80%,可以临床早期有效识别PVT高危个体,从而指导及时的干预措施。
5. 肝硬化并发PVT对患者预后的影响
肝硬化并发PVT被认为对患者的预后有负面影响,PVT可加重或诱发门静脉高压性出血,使肝功能进行性损害并发肝性脑病或腹水,并影响肝移植术后患者的存活率[42]。
PVT对肝硬化患者的预后影响与血栓的阻塞程度、分布范围以及肝硬化的严重程度有关。附壁性和部分阻塞性PVT大多无症状,部分病例无需抗血栓治疗即可自行改善,甚至再通[43]。为此,有学者[44]提出PVT的危险分层:如果PVT在没有抗血栓治疗的情况下3个月内自发消失,就可以定义为“一过性PVT形成”。完全闭塞性PVT在肝移植受者中的预后较差。当PVT进展明显并延伸至肠系膜上静脉时,可发展为肠缺血和肠梗死[45]。研究[46]表明,急性肾损伤、肝肾综合征也与PVT显著相关。
食管胃静脉是门静脉系统的重要分支,肝硬化患者并发PVT时将进一步增加门静脉压力,导致食管胃静脉曲张破裂出血(esophageal varices bleeding,EVB)的严重程度增加,最终增加上消化道出血或再出血风险[47]。PVT也是肝硬化患者食管静脉曲张套扎术后再出血的高危因素,有研究[48]表明,伴发PVT的EVB患者经EVL治疗后早期再出血风险比无PVT患者高2.798倍,且手术疗程更长,但PVT并不影响食管静脉曲张消除后的复发率及复发时间[49]。此外,肝硬化PVT患者的肝移植手术时间更长,术中输血量增加,且1年和5年生存率更差,但PVT与等待移植患者的死亡率增加无关[50]。全闭塞性PVT患者的死亡率和再血栓率较高,其30天死亡率比非闭塞性PVT患者高5倍[42]。
一项关于肝硬化PVT预后的研究[51]显示,进行性PVT患者腹水恶化,非肿瘤性PVT增加难治性腹水发生率。一项对未行肝移植肝硬化患者的Meta分析[52]显示,PVT的存在可能对肝硬化患者的预后影响轻微,推测PVT主要通过增加肝失代偿事件发生率,影响肝硬化患者的短期预后,但不影响长期预后。
6. 肝硬化并发PVT的预防
肝硬化患者预防性抗凝治疗安全可行,可有效降低PVT的发生率,且不增加出血风险[53-54]。对腹腔镜脾切除及贲门周围血管离断术后的肝硬化患者开展为期1年的随机对照研究[55]证实,预防性使用华法林安全有效,且能够明显降低门静脉高压症患者腹腔镜脾切除联合贲门周围血管离断术后PVT发生率。低分子肝素钙联合右旋糖酐也可有效预防门静脉高压患者术后PVT形成,且安全性良好[56]。最近一项网络Meta分析[57]支持在肝硬化患者中使用直接口服抗凝剂,其对代偿性肝硬化患者安全有效,可用于预防PVT且不增加出血风险。中药制剂肝爽颗粒联合恩替卡韦治疗可显著降低乙型肝炎肝硬化患者的PVT发生率,预防PVT形成[58]。此外,对于长期接受NSBB治疗且提示有失代偿体征或症状的肝硬化患者,可考虑随访超声检测门静脉流速,预防PVT发生。
2022年,Driever等[59]研究发现肝硬化PVT的性质是血管内膜纤维化,仅有1/3的病例存在富含纤维蛋白的血栓,因此提出新的观点:PVT导致肝硬化门静脉血管狭窄,抗凝治疗仅对含有纤维蛋白的血栓有效,预防门静脉内膜纤维化应是未来治疗肝硬化PVT的重点。
7. 小结
肝硬化加重增加PVT发生风险,由于缺乏大规模、前瞻性研究和随机试验,其发生的危险因素仍存在争议。PVT对肝硬化自然病程及患者预后均有不利影响,但目前对PVT的防治管理仍未形成统一共识。肝脏是一个接受双重血供的器官,其中门静脉对维持肝脏正常生理功能发挥重要作用,肝动脉输送氧合良好的血液,约占肝脏总血流量的25%,门静脉供应其余75%。PVT的发生一方面阻碍门静脉血液循环,加重门静脉高压引发并发症,进而导致肝硬化患者的预后恶化;另一方面,大多数患者发生PVT时并无症状,导致相关预防和诊治延误。因此,临床亟需针对肝硬化PVT更快速、方便的诊断技术,以便及时给予干预措施,降低PVT的危害,提高患者的生存预后。
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